[141][140][142][143][144] Accounts were also written that he had an infestation of worms, caused by the ulcers, which led to his death. [98] He separately besieged Athens and Piraeus (the Long Walls had since been demolished). [152], Sulla was red-blond[154] and blue-eyed, and had a dead-white face covered with red marks. [34] The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. Mithridates also would equip Sulla with seventy or eighty ships and pay a war indemnity of two or three thousand talents. The two greatest of these were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. His rival, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, described Sulla as having the cunning of a fox and the courage of a lion but that it was his cunning that was by far the most dangerous. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[8] (/sl/; 13878 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, respectively. Primary sources are first-hand evidence related to the time or event you are investigating.This includes accounts by participants or observers and a wide range of written, physical, audio or visual materials created at the time or later by someone with direct experience.. Ariobarzanes had been driven out by Mithridates VI of Pontus, who wanted to install one of his own sons (Ariarathes) on the Cappadocian throne. Even though the prosecutor declined to show up on the day of the trial, leading to Sulla's victory by default, Sulla's ambitions were frustrated. Source: Ammianus Marcellinus, History, XIV.16: "The Luxury of the Rich in Rome," c. 400 A.D. Sulla had officially been declared an outlaw and in the eyes of the Cinnan regime, Flaccus was to take command of an army without a legal commander. sulla primary sources. After Sulla had recovered the government by force of arms, everybody became robbers and plunderers. [28][29], Under Marius, the Roman forces followed a very similar plan as under Metellus, capturing and garrisoning fortified positions in the African countryside. Social: Facebook Page YouTube Page Instagram Page. Identifying and locating primary sources can be challenging. Even those whom Sulla had quarrelled with (including Publius Cornelius Cethegus, whom Sulla had outlawed in 88 BC) defected to join his side. Secondary sources are a step removed from primary sources. [17], One story, "as false as it is charming", relates that when Sulla was a baby, his nurse was carrying him around the streets, until a strange woman walked up to her and said, "Puer tibi et reipublicae tuae felix", which can be translated as, "The boy will be a source of luck to you and your state". The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted . [47], Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. Pueblo, CO 81001. Primary Sources on the Web: Finding, Evaluating, Using. He could acknowledge the law as valid. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. He hinted to them that Marius would find other men to fight Mithridates, forcing them to give up opportunities to plunder the East, claims which were "surely false". [127] Sulla himself was defeated and forced to flee into his camp, but his lieutenant Crassus on the right wing won the battle in the night. [123], After the younger Marius' defeat, Sulla had the Samnite war captives massacred, which triggered an uprising in his rear. With military and diplomatic victory, his political fortunes seemed positive. In 89BC, one of the tribunes of the plebs passed the lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to all of the allies (with exception for the Samnites and Lucanians still under arms). In the ensuing fight, Sulla defeated Marius, who consequently fled to Praeneste. [53] Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east: he had restored Ariobarzanes to the throne, been hailed imperator by his men, and was the first Roman to treat successfully with the Parthians. Plutarch, writing much . Archelaus then hid in the nearby marshes before escaping to Chalcis. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. His colleague was, 79 BC: Retires from political life, refusing the, 78 BC: Dies, perhaps of an intestinal ulcer, with funeral held in Rome, This page was last edited on 2 March 2023, at 11:05. By the end of the war, the SSA had conscripted over 2.8 million American men. Primary sources include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts, results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of creative writing, and art objects. [65] This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. Sulla rose to prominence during the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha, whom he captured as a result of Jugurtha's betrayal by the king's allies, although his superior Gaius Marius took credit for ending the war. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the Senate. [31] Ultimately, the Numidians were defeated in 106BC, due in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. The first of the leges Corneliae concerned the interest rates, and stipulated that all debtors were to pay simple interest only, rather than the common compound interest that so easily bankrupted the debtors. was a major figure in the late Roman Republic. Having exhausted available provisions near Athens, doing so was both necessary to ensure the survival of his army and also to relieve a brigade of six thousand men cut off in Thessaly. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies . Some set their hearts on houses, some on landsThe whole period was one of debauched tastes and lawlessness. They are now largely lost, although fragments from them exist as quotations in later writers. Sulla also wanted to reduce the risk that a future general might attempt to seize power, as he himself had done. Se l'azienda ha pi di 200 dipendenti, deve essere presente anche il rappresentante sindacale aziendale (RSA). [105] Sulla moved to intercept Flaccus' army in Thessaly, but turned around when Pontic forces reoccupied Boetia. He then attacked the Samnites and routed one of their armies near Aesernia before capturing the new Italian capital at Bovianum Undecimanorum. Cicero comments that Pompey once said, "If Sulla could, why can't I? When he was still a proconsul in 82, he planned and executed the proscriptions against his enemies for revenge, especially from the Marian camp, and against rich Romans because he needed money to pay his veterans . The Battle of Sacriportus occurred between the forces of Young Marius and the battle-hardened legions of Sulla. 9, The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Tweet. This distinction is important because it will affect how you understand these sources. After some days, both sides engaged in battle. Late in the year, Sulla cooperated with Marius (who was a legate in the northern theatre) in the northern part of southern Italy to defeat the Marsi: Marius defeated the Marsi, sending them headlong into Sulla's waiting forces. He defeated Norbanus at the Battle of Mount Tifata, forcing the consul to withdraw. Roman military leaders. Throughout the research process, you'll likely use various types of sources. Sarah Cooper teaches 8th grade U.S. history and is assistant head for academic life at Flintridge Preparatory School in La Canada, Calif. Sarah is the . He was, however, defeated. [85], After the elections, Sulla forced the consuls designate to swear to uphold his laws. An inscription on a sixteenth-century tombstone in Istanbul would be a primary source from the Classical Ottoman Age. 45-120 CE) was a Platonist philosopher, best known to the general public as author of his "Parallel Lives" of paired Greek and Roman statesmen and military leaders.He was a voluminous writer, author also of a collection of "Moralia" or "Ethical Essays," mostly in dialogue format, many of them devoted to philosophical topics, not at all . Guide to primary sources; Ask for help; CSU Pueblo University Library Email Me. Helping or sheltering a proscribed person was punishable by death, while killing a proscribed person was rewarded with two talents. [117] Sulla attempted to open negotiations with Norbanus, who was at Capua, but Norbanus refused to treat and withdrew to Praeneste as Sulla advanced. In the sciences and social sciences, primary sources or 'primary research' are original research experiments, studies, or . 82 BC. There, while giving a speech, he had three or four thousand Samnite prisoners butchered, to the shock of the attending senators. Reason #4: studying primary sources helps students become better citizens. Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastric ulcer (symptomized by a sudden hemorrhage from his mouth, followed by a fever from which he never recovered), possibly caused by chronic alcohol abuse. Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and for the eventual end of the Republic under Augustus. This may have been related to Sulla's campaign for the consulship. "[158], His excesses and penchant for debauchery could be attributed to the difficult circumstances of his youth, such as losing his father while he was still in his teens and retaining a doting stepmother, necessitating an independent streak from an early age. Understanding Context: Awareness of the interconnection of events from the past, present and future. The second was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who died young. [89] After Octavius induced the senate to outlaw Cinna, Cinna suborned the army besieging Nola and induced the Italians again to rise up. [citation needed], Sulla became embroiled in a political fight against one of the plebeian tribunes, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, on the matter of how the new Italian citizens were to be distributed into the Roman tribes for purposes of voting. And for his consular colleague, he attempted to transfer to him the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo's army. Secondary sources are interpretations of history. [76] The troops were willing to follow Sulla to Rome; his officers, however, realised Sulla's plans and deserted him (except his quaestor and kinsman, almost certainly Lucius Licinius Lucullus). Upon his arrival, Sulla had his quaestor Lucullus order Sura, who had vitally delayed Mithridates' advances into Greece, to retreat back into Macedonia. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. [138], As promised, when his tasks were complete, Sulla returned his powers and withdrew to his country villa near Puteoli to be with his family. Marius and his son, along with some others, escaped to Africa. 101 BC: Took part in the defeat of the Cimbri at the, 90-89 BC: Senior officer in the Social War, as, Holds the consulship for the first time, with, 87 BC: Commands Roman armies to fight King, 85 BC: Liberates the provinces of Macedonia, Asia, and Cilicia from Pontic occupation, 83 BC: Returns to Italy and undertakes civil war against the factional Marian government, 83-82 BC: Enters war with the followers of Gaius Marius the Younger and Cinna, 82 BC: Obtains victory at the battle of the Colline Gate, 80 BC: Holds the consulship for the second time. However, this material may be located in a number of places including in the library, elsewhere on campus, or even online. . 134/4 C.Marius spends his early life in the countryside near Arpinum. In 46 BC Julius Caesar appointed him governor of the province of Africa. Or he could attempt to reverse it and regain his command. The cultivated grapevine (Vitis vinifera ssp. Editor: Paul Halsall. From this distance, Sulla remained out of the day-to-day political activities in Rome, intervening only a few times when his policies were involved (e.g. Moreover, the people knew that Sulla was friends with Bocchus, a rich foreign monarch, and rejected his standing for the praetorship to induce him to spend money on games. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was born in 138 BCE in Puteoli, Italy. Textbook passages discussing specific concepts, events, and experiments. [122] Marius, buttressed by Samnite support, fought a long and hard battle with Sulla at Sacriportus that resulted in defeat when five of his cohorts defected. For now, Cinna and the Marian political faction would have to wait, but revenge would prove far deadlier than anything that had come before it. The collection currently contains . Sulla's military coup was enabled by Marius's military reforms, that bound the army's loyalty with the general rather than to the Roman Republic, and permanently destabilized the Roman power structure. As Sulla viewed the office, the tribunate was especially dangerous, and his intention was to not only deprive the Tribunate of power, but also of prestige (Sulla himself had been officially deprived of his eastern command through the underhanded activities of a tribune). Gaius Marius, a lieutenant of Metellus, returned to Rome to stand for the consulship in 107BC. Website. Continuing towards Scipio's position at Teanum Sidicinum, Sulla negotiated and was almost able to convince Scipio to defect. With Sulpicius able to enact legislation without consular opposition, Sulla discovered that Marius had tricked him, for the first piece of legislation Sulpicius brought was a law transferring the command against Mithridates to Marius. [129], Sulla had his stepdaughter Aemilia (daughter of princeps senatus Marcus Aemilius Scaurus) married to Pompey, although she shortly died in childbirth. [27], When Marius took over the war, he entrusted Sulla to organise cavalry forces in Italy needed to pursue the mobile Numidians into the desert. His primary duty was the defeat of Mithridates and the re-establishment of Roman power in the east. Sulla, who opposed the Gracchian popularis reforms, was an optimate; though his coming to the side of the traditional Senate originally could be described as atavistic when dealing with the tribunate and legislative bodies, while more visionary when reforming the court system, governorships, and membership of the Senate. They had, however, fallen on hard times. [73] The consuls, fearful of intimidation of Sulpicius and his armed bodyguards, declared a suspension of public business (iustitium) which led to Sulpicius and his mob forcing the consuls to flee. Sulla was a man to whom, up to victory, sufficient praise can hardly be given, and for whom, after victory, no criticism can be adequate. The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. After massacring a number of Italian traders who supported one of his rivals, indignation erupted as to Jugurtha's use of bribery to secure a favourable peace treaty; called to Rome to testify on bribery charges, he successfully plotted the assassination of one another royal claimant before returning home. Examples of tertiary sources include encyclopedias and dictionaries, chronologies, almanacs, directories, indexes, and bibliographies. The assembly of the people subsequently ratified the decision, with no limit set on his time in office. His troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator. [38] The next year, Sulla was elected military tribune and served under Marius,[39] and assigned to treat with the Marsi, part of the Germanic invaders, he was able to negotiate their defection from the Cimbri and Teutones. [25], The Jugurthine War had started in 112BC when Jugurtha, grandson of Massinissa of Numidia, claimed the entire kingdom of Numidia in defiance of Roman decrees that divided it among several members of the royal family. [56] When the pro-Italian plebeian tribune Marcus Livius Drusus was assassinated in 91BC while trying again to pass a bill extending Roman citizenship, the Italians revolted. The Mithridatic War (88 - 85 BC) Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research. 106/10 The quaestor L.Sulla arrives at Marius' camp with reinforcements from To make primary texts readily available for classroom use, they selected important . Due to his meeting the minimum age requirement of thirty, he stood for the quaestorship in 108BC. [33] Winning Bocchus' friendship and making plain Rome's demands for Jugurtha's deliverance, Sulla successfully concluded negotiations and secured Bocchus' capture of Jugurtha and the king's rendition to Marius' camp. Primary Source Terms:. When it came to hiding his intentions, his mind was incredibly unfathomable, yet with all else he was extremely generous; especially with money. Finally, Sulla revoked the power of the tribunes to veto acts of the Senate, although he left intact the tribunes' power to protect individual Roman citizens. Biographies of historical and famous people. [citation needed], The second law concerned the sponsio, which was the sum in dispute in cases of debt, and usually had to be lodged with the praetor before the case was heard. [113], Sulla crossed the Adriatic for Brundisium in spring of 83BC with five legions of Mithridatic veterans, capturing Brundisium without a fight. Skilfully withdrawing to Clusium, he delegated to Norbanus command of troops to hold Metellus Pius. [137][15] In a manner that the historian Suetonius thought arrogant, Julius Caesar later mocked Sulla for resigning the dictatorship. Sulla then duly besieged the city. To do so would mean total humiliation at the hands of his opponents, the end of his political career, and perhaps even further danger to his life. His son, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, issued denarii bearing the name of the dictator,[151] as did a grandson, Quintus Pompeius Rufus. under Gaius Marius in the wars against the Numidian rebel Jugurtha. National Library Services to Schools has developed a suite of primary source analysis tools specifically for Aotearoa New Zealand schools. "[133][134], At the end of 82 BC or the beginning of 81 BC,[135] the Senate appointed Sulla dictator legibus faciendis et reipublicae constituendae causa ("dictator for the making of laws and for the settling of the constitution"). [128], After the battle at the Colline Gate, Sulla summoned the Senate to the temple of Bellona at the Campus Martius. The young Gaius Julius Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, became one of Sulla's targets, and fled the city. [16] His father may have served as praetor, but details are unclear; his father married twice and Sulla' stepmother was of considerable wealth, which certainly helped the young Sulla's ambitions. Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to the truth of what actually happened during an historical event or time period. The first of the, Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback, sfn error: no target: CITEREFBadian2012 (. At the start of his second consulship in 80BC with Metellus Pius, Sulla resigned his dictatorship. Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senatorial approval before any bill could be submitted to the Plebeian Council (the principal popular assembly), and which had also restored the older, more aristocratic "Servian" organization to the Centuriate Assembly (assembly of soldiers). [40], In 102BC, the invaders returned and moved to force the Alps. Scipio's army blamed him for the breakdown in negotiations and made it clear to the consul that they would not fight Sulla, who at this point appeared the peacemaker. A book from 1877 England would be a primary source about Victorian history. These marriages helped build political alliances with the influential Caecilii Metelli and the Pompeys. Thus, Sulla was presented with a choice. He was also notorious for his personal relationships . Encyclopedias. [107], In the aftermath of the battle, Sulla was approached by Archelaus for terms. Sulla then established a system where all consuls and praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office. His enemy, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, was elected consul for 87BC in place of his candidate;[83] his nephew was rejected as plebeian tribune while Marius' nephew was successful. Marius arranged for Sulla to lift the iustitium and allow Sulpicius to bring proposals; Sulla, in a "desperately weak position [received] little in return[,] perhaps no more than a promise that Sulla's life would be safe". [48] The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. [60], The next year, 89BC, Sulla served as legate under the consul Lucius Porcius Cato. [100] In need of resources, Sulla sacked the temples of Epidaurus, Delphi, and Olympia; after a battle with the Pontic general Archelaus outside Piraeus, Sulla's forces forced the Pontic garrison to withdraw by sea. The dictator is the subject of four Italian operas, two of which take considerable liberties with history: Sulla is a central character in the first three, Lucius Cornelius Sulla is also a character in the first book of the, His first wife was Ilia, according to Plutarch. [121], Fighting in 83BC began with reverses for Sulla's opponents: their governors in Africa and Sardinia were deposed. However, in some cases, paintings are considered secondary sources. What Is a Primary Source? Revised on November 11, 2022. Sulla 5 (L. Cornelius Sulla Felix) - Roman dictator, 82-79 B.C. Sulla was closely associated with Venus,[9] adopting the title Epaphroditos meaning favored of Aphrodite/Venus.[10]. To this end, he reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for 10 years before being re-elected to any office. Books. Marius, an Italian by birth rather than a pure Roman, was a relative newcomer to the Roman elite, and he was considered an outsider by the Senate fathers. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s.[25]. Sulla's descendants continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. Pompey was then dispatched to recover Sicily. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are made . Lucius other name: Sulla Details individual; military/naval; official; Roman; Male. [53], Relations between Rome and its allies (the socii), had deteriorated over the years up to 91BC. Years later, in 91BC, Bocchus paid for the erection of gilded equestrian statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. However, if you were studying how compact fluorescent light bulbs are presented in the popular media, the magazine article could be considered a primary source. Regardless, if he had immediate plans for a consulship, they were forced into the background at the outbreak of war. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . It was not until he was in his very late forties and almost past the age . He declined battle with Pontus at the hill Philoboetus near Chaeronea before manoeuvring to capture higher ground and build earthworks. [101], Sulla decamped his army from Attica toward central Greece. Beyond personal enmity, Caesar Strabo may also have stood for office because it was evident that Rome's relations with the Pontic king, Mithridates VI Eupator, were deteriorating and that the consuls of 88 would be assigned an extremely lucrative and glorious command against Pontus. Sulla then served as legate under his former commander and, in that stead, successfully subdued a Gallic tribe which revolted in the aftermath of a previous Roman defeat. aking of America (MoA) is a digital library of primary sources in American social history from the antebellum period through reconstruction. [100] The Pontic casualties given in Plutarch and Appian, the main sources for the battles, are exaggerated; Sulla's report that he suffered merely fifteen losses is not credible. From 133BC and the start of Tiberius Gracchus' land reforms, Italian communities were displaced from de jure Roman public lands over which no title had been enforced for generations. porterville unified school district human resources; Tags . The next year, 96BC, he assigned "probably pro consule as was customary" to Cilicia in Asia Minor. [125], Carbo, who had suffered defeats by Metellus Pius and Pompey, attempted to redeploy so to relieve his co-consul Marius at Praeneste. Book Sources: Bloody Sunday - Selma to Montgomery March (1965) A selection of books/e-books available in Trible Library. If Sulla hesitated it can only have been because he was not sure how his army would react. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. [116] Advancing on Capua, he met the two consuls of that year Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus and Gaius Norbanus who had dangerously divided their forces. Sulla had his enemies declared hostes, probably from outside the pomerium, and after assembling an assembly where he apologised for the ongoing war, left to fight Carbo in Etruria. Tools for primary source analysis. to the Birth of the Roman Empire (1969). [66] Buttressed by success against Rome's traditional enemies, the Samnites, and general Roman victory across Italy, Sulla stood for and was elected easily to the consulship of 88BC; his colleague would be Quintus Pompeius Rufus. the execution of Granius, shortly before his own death). Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy.". [130], In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a series of proscriptions (a program of executing and confiscating the property of those whom he perceived as enemies of the state). The interest rates were also to be agreed between both parties at the time that the loan was made, and should stand for the whole term of the debt, without further increase.
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